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Impact on Wives and Families | Work and Sleep Patterns | Implications for Fatigue Management
The impact of Great Barrier Reef Pilotage work on wives and families
Abstract
A survey of the wives/partners of Great Barrier Reef pilots was used to determine the impact of pilotage work on wives and families. Analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data from 35 wives (response rate 60%) indicated respondents were relatively older (> 51% aged over 50 years), well-educated and generally well-satisfied with married life. Sixty-eight percent were currently employed and 22% had children under 18 years. All wives raised concern over the impact of competition between piloting organisations on pilots and their families. Financial issues were of central concern to the wives with respondents indicating their participation in the paid workforce was directly related to the deregulation of the industry and the consequent lowering of income and financial uncertainty. The wives reported that much of the stress their husbands experienced, particularly issues surrounding income structure, was also attributable to the deregulation of the industry. Seventy percent of respondents reported concern regarding the impact of the physical risks and fatigue of pilotage work on their husbands. The home and away nature of pilotage work was linked to the experience of stress by the majority of participants at least some of the time, 60% of the sample reported difficulties coping with stress - with altered eating habits being predominantly used as a coping mechanism. From the two measures of psychological well-being used in this study approximately 14% of the sample were anxious at the time of the study. Nine percent of respondents were considered to be depressed. In comparison, normative data indicates approximately 3% of the adult population suffers major depression. A substantial number of wives perceived a lack of emotional or informational support. The results of this study provide an initial insight into some of the difficulties wives experience as a result of their husband’s pilotage work in the Great Barrier Reef region and suggest that a number of these women appear to be experiencing "Intermittent Husband Syndrome".
1.0 Introduction
A number of studies have indicated that separation from family and home is a significant contributing factor to the level of stress experienced by seafarers and their families (Foster & Cacioppe 1986; Shipley & Cook 1980; Sutherland & Flin 1989). When the health, stress and fatigue of 1806 Australian seafarers was recently examined (Parker et al. 1997), the home-work interface was the highest ranked source of occupational stress for all seafaring groups. The transition between home and work, particularly the first seven days at home or sea, was documented as being difficult for all family members. Seafarers also expressed concern over the pressure placed on wives as a consequence of having full responsibility for the home and family for extended periods of time. Similarly, literature from the aviation industry has highlighted that an intimate relationship exists between a pilot’s home life, work situation, work performance and well-being (Cooper & Sloan 1985; Karlins et al. 1989).
The impact of regular partings and reunions on family members left at home has been less frequently acknowledged. One of the first groups to document this issue was Morrice and Taylor (1978). These researchers were attracted by what appeared to be a recurrent pattern of clinical symptoms of anxiety and depression in women whose husbands were employed in the off-shore oil industry. Therefore, a study was conducted which compared the health and well-being of 200 off-shore wives with 100 on-shore wives (Taylor et al. 1985). Results of this survey indicated that while no differences between the two groups existed in terms of general health, the off-shore wives experienced increased levels of anxiety and depression related to frequent separations from their husbands. In most situations, the wives were able to successfully cope with their husband’s absence and thus, the anxiety and depression were not significantly problematic. However, approximately 10 percent of off-shore wives exhibited ineffective coping strategies and were classified as suffering from ‘Intermittent Husband Syndrome’ (IHS). This term was coined by Morrice and Taylor (1978) and describes a triad of symptoms: anxiety, depression and sexual difficulties, which occur as a result of frequent partings and reunions between a wife and husband.
Subsequent studies have provided further evidence suggesting that the well-being of family members remaining at home can be negatively affected by frequent separations. A survey of wives of commercial airline workers based in Hong Kong showed that aircrew wives had significantly lower levels of well-being, and wives under 40 years of age, significantly higher levels of depressive mood when compared to a group of ground crew wives (Rigg & Cosgrove 1994). Comments from aircrew wives also indicated that the frequent separations and reunions were difficult to cope with because of the disruptions they caused to the family’s routine (Rigg & Cosgrove 1994). These results led the authors to conclude that aircrew wives, and in particular younger aircrew wives, may be susceptible to the psychological problems present in the IHS.
Similarly, results from a survey of 52 wives of Australian seafarers indicated that 83 percent of the wives experienced stress when their partner was either due home or due to return to sea. Seventy nine percent of children were perceived by their mothers to experience stress prior to and after the arrival home of their father (Foster & Cacioppe 1986). Hence, it is apparent that the home and away nature of seafaring work impacts on all family members.
Previous studies investigating English (Shipley & Cook 1980), Dutch (de Vries-Griever 1982) and Australian marine pilots operating in the Port Phillip region (Berger 1984) have acknowledged the disruptive effects pilotage work can have on the lifestyle and family life of pilots, and the importance of a stable family situation on pilotage performance. These studies also recognise the value in documenting the wives assessments of situations as a means of verifying pilots’ comments and complaints. This is an important factor given the ever-present questions regarding the accuracy of self-report data.
The work practices of Great Barrier Reef pilots frequently require pilots to spend time away from home. These periods of separation may last anywhere between a few days to several weeks. Additionally, since 1993 pilotage in the Great Barrier Reef region has changed from the one provider situation which had existed for more than 100 years. This change has encouraged competition and to date, three pilotage companies have emerged. Anecdotal information from industry sources indicates that this change has caused a high level of stress and fatigue to pilots and has also impacted upon the lives of their families. To examine if and how Great Barrier Reef pilotage work impacts on the wives/partners of pilots, the present study was undertaken. This work was fully supported by Pilot Advisory Group members who believed input from the wives/partners would enhance a continuing investigation concerned with the fatigue status of Great Barrier Reef pilots.
2.0 Methodology
To examine the impact that marine pilotage work has on the wives/partners of Great Barrier Reef pilots, a questionnaire was developed. The questionnaire consisted of 17 questions (100 items). It was distributed to all wives/partners of Great Barrier Reef pilots (n=58). The study was conducted with approval from the Queensland University of Technology Research Ethics Committee./p>
2.1 Development of the questionnaire
A preliminary draft of the questionnaire was sent to three pilots’ wives (one from each pilot company). On the basis of their feedback, the questionnaire was modified. Study specific measures; that is those related specifically to pilotage work, were developed from several previous studies of marine pilots (Parker et al. 1997; Berger 1984; Shipley & Cook 1980). Additionally, topics addressed in previous studies of air crew wives (Cooper & Sloan 1985; Rigg and Cosgrove 1994) and wives of off-shore oil rig workers (Taylor et al. 1985) were incorporated in the questionnaire.
The final questionnaire totalled 100 items and sought information on: (i) demographic characteristics; (ii) the physical, mental, financial and organisational impact of marine pilotage work on husbands; (iii) the impact of the home and away nature of marine pilotage work on spouses and families; (iv) marital satisfaction (dyadic adjustment); (v) social support; (vi) general health and fitness; and (vii) psychological well-being (particularly the experience of anxiety and depression). Space for additional comments was provided to enable the wives/partners to elaborate on issues or to raise other pertinent points not addressed by the questionnaire.
2.2 Pilot Testing
The questionnaire was pilot tested with a group of 4 women in similar circumstances to the wives of marine pilots; that is, their husbands/partners’ work involved extended periods of time being spent away from home. These women were requested to complete the questionnaire and comment on the content, suitability and acceptability of the questionnaire. Their comments were incorporated into the questionnaire before it was distributed to pilots’ wives. A copy of the Questionnaire is attached in Appendix 3.
2.3 Questionnaire distribution and reminder system
Questionnaires (including a stamped-addressed envelope for returns) were distributed through the pilotage companies and posted to the home addresses of participants. The diverse location of participants in a number of Queensland coastal regions and interstate made the personal administration of the questionnaires impractical. An information page in the questionnaire fully explained the purpose of the study and all aspects of confidentiality. A reminder system was implemented consisting of two individual reminders to each participant.
2.4 Measures
2.4.1 Demographic
Items in this section included information on age, marital status, education, country of birth, number and ages of children and employment status.
2.4.2 Industry-specific
The 20 items in this section were designed to assess the degree of concern wives felt about the impact of industry-specific issues on their spouses. These items examined: (i) the physical and mental demands and risks associated with piloting; (ii) stress and health related issues; (iii) financial issues (particularly income, superannuation, loss of income, adequacy and regularity of income security); and (iv) organisational issues (including competition). Respondents were asked to rate the degree of concern associated with the impact of these industry specific issues on spouses on a six point Likert scale ranging from ‘very definitely is not a concern’ (scale = 1) to ‘very definitely is a concern’ (scale = 6).
On the basis of factor analysis three indexes were identified, these were: (i) concern for the physical and mental stress on partner; (ii) concern for long term financial issues; and (iv) concern about the uncertainty associated with piloting. Index construction and reliabilities are discussed in detail in the Results section of this report.
2.4.3 The home and away nature of pilotage work
The 26 items in this section were designed to measure the impact of the home and away nature of pilotage work on spouses/partners and families. This section contained a number of items examining each of the following: (i) the transition period between work and home; (ii) the uncertainty of the timing and duration of periods at home and at sea; (iii) the methods of coping spouse/partners used (particularly smoking, drinking and drug taking) which were due to the absence of a partner; (iv) coping with emergency situations alone; and (v) the positive and negative effects of pilotage work on spouse and family. Respondents were asked to rate these items on a four point Likert scale ranging from ‘never’ (scale = 1) to ‘always’ (scale = 4).
No discernible patterns emerged from the factor analysis of these items. Therefore the items were treated as single items. However, for ease of presentation and interpretation these items were grouped on the following basis: items examining the experience of stress; items examining ways of coping with stress; items examining the impact of pilotage work on family life; items highlighting general areas of concern. 2.4.4 Marital satisfaction: Spanier Dyadic Adjustment Scale
The Spanier Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Spanier, 1976) is designed to assess the quality of the relationship of either married or cohabiting couples and comprises four interrelated sub-scales (Dyadic Consensus, Dyadic Cohesion, Dyadic Satisfaction and Affection Expression). Seven items assessing Dyadic Satisfaction were used. Previous reports indicate sub-scales can be used independently without losing confidence in either the reliability or the validity of the measure. Using Cronbach’s alpha as the reliability estimate Spanier (1976) reports an overall scale reliability of 0.96 with a reliability score of 0.94 for the Dyadic Satisfaction. Respondents were asked to rate their responses on a five point Likert scale ranging from ‘all of the time’ (scale = 1) to ‘never’ (scale = 5).
2.4.5 Social support
The Medical Outcomes Study (MOS) (Sherbourne and Stewart, 1991) social support scale was used to measure social support. This is a 20 item scale which contains four sub-scales: tangible support, affection, positive interactions and emotional/informational support. Respondents were asked to assess the frequency of experiencing items in each of the sub-scales on a five point Likert scale ranging from ‘never’ (scale = 1) to ‘all of the time’ (scale = 5).
2.4.6 General health and fitness
The four questions in this section related to the rating of present general health, presence of physical or mental health problems, medication being taken and rating of overall fitness levels.
2.4.7 Psychological well-being: anxiety and depression
The Delusions Symptoms States Inventory (DSSI) (Foulds and Bedford, 1978) was used to measure levels of anxiety and depression. This is a brief, 14 item measure which contains two seven item sub-scales assessing levels of anxiety and depression. This measure was selected because it provides a clinically relevant measure of both anxiety and depression. The DSSI has been validated in adult Australian populations (Boyle, 1993; Henderson et al. 1981; Keeping et al.,1989). Respondents were asked to rate their feelings on each of the items on a five point Likert scale ranging from ‘all of the time’ (scale = 1) to ‘never’ (scale = 5).
2.5 Data analysis
2.5.1 The Qualitative Data
To facilitate interpretation of the questionnaire, and to provide a clearer understanding of the context within which responses to questionnaire items were made, participants were requested to include any additional comments they might have on the issues covered within the questionnaire or on issues that were omitted from the questionnaire. This qualitative data was analysed by examining the comments for recurrent patterns and themes. The data has been incorporated within the relevant sections of the results. Because of the small number of participants and to preserve anonymity, no identifying information has been included.
2.5.2 The Quantitative Data
The quantitative data was analysed using SAS-PC. Standard univariate statistics were used to describe the responses. Factor analysis, using the principal components method to extract the initial factors and a promax (oblique) rotation method, was used to help identify constructs underlying a series of questions dealing with knowledge, attitudes and beliefs. Further item analysis involving assessment of the reliability of scales and their interpretability, was undertaken before the scales were finalised. Index and scale construction is described in detail in the following section. It is important to note that some frequencies included in tables do not add to 100 due to rounding.
Cronbach’s alpha coeffiecients were calculated to determine the reliability of each of the aggregate scores used in the report. Scales showed a high level of reliability with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.83 to 0.98. Scale coefficients are shown in Appendix 2.